War and revolution 1930-1949

Sun Yixian feared that if Nationalism was not developed, the result would be the destruction of China and the extinction of its people as a race. He believed it was vitally important that China's millions be united into one powerful nation, united under a central government.

Sun believed that too much liberty was like 'loose sand' that destroyed cohesion in China and enabled the imperial powers to oppress the country.

Sun aimed for a western-style democracy in the long run, but transition would include a Guomindang dictatorship until the people were educated about democracy. The three stages in the move towards democracy were as follows.

1. Military rule to was remove internal obstacles and 'disseminate its principles so that the people may be enlightened'.
2. Political tutelage would help the government prepare the people for democracy by allowing them to participate in local government elections.
3. A president was to be elected and a constitutional democracy created.

Sun Yat-sen, translated by Frank W. Price, San Min Chu 1, The Three Principles of the People,
The Commercial Press, Shanghai, 1927, pp. 4-5, 151-153, 213-214, 364, 395, 409.

Sun proposed a policy of 'support for the people rather than profit' that would assist production and provide an abundant food supply in China. Sun wrote, 'The fundamental difference between the Principle of Livelihood and capitalism is this: capitalism makes profit its sole aim, while the Principle of Livelihood makes the nurture of people its aim. With such a noble principle we can destroy the old evil capitalistic system'.

Actions to fulfil this principle included: fairer distribution of wealth and 'land to the tiller' (an ancient Chinese utopian idea) as well as a land tax in which all increases in the value of land would become government revenue.

Sun Yat-sen, translated by Frank W. Price, San Min Chu 1, The Three Principles of the People,
The Commercial Press, Shanghai, 1927, pp. 4-5, 151-153, 213-214, 364, 395, 409.

Treaties with foreign powers and tariff reform

TV Soong, Jiang Jieshi's brother-in-law, was appointed as the finance minister from 1928 until 1933. (Note: there was nepotism throughout the high levels of government, HH Kung was brother-in-law and advisor.)

TV Soong negotiated with foreign powers to enable China to regain control of tariff rates on foreign imports. The negotiations were successful. They enabled the government to set customs duties and increase Nationalist government revenue. The acceptance of the tariff reform by America in February 1929 indicated recognition of Jiang Jieshi's Nanjing government.

By 1933 foreign concessions were reduced by two-thirds and eventually by 1943 all nations except Japan had renounced land holdings in China.

Financial reform

The tael, the currency of imperial China, was abolished in 1933 and replaced by a silver dollar or yuan. Two years later paper money was introduced and guaranteed by the Central Bank of China. Foreign exchange was regulated more efficiently by the Central Bank. This improved foreign confidence in the Chinese economy.

Communications and infrastructure

The Chinese Ministry of Railways expanded the railway network. By 1936 the Guangzhou to Hankou railway was completed, linking major eastern coastal towns. The highway system was expanded by 100 per cent between 1921 and 1936. Telephone and postal services were improved and the China National Aviation Corporation began in 1930. The government encouraged German investment in airline services such as the Eurasia Aviation Corporation which began operations during 1931.

Rural reforms

Land reform was initiated through the law of 1930 reducing rent and taxes to a flat 37.5 per cent. Agricultural cooperatives and a credit administration board were set up but there was very limited political support or finance to bring these reforms to fruition. Land reclamation and irrigation projects were also planned but not put into operation.

According to the Principles outlined by Sun, Jiang was to introduce democracy in three stages:

1. military control
2. political tutelage
3. the construction of a constitutional parliament.

Two laws were enacted to move towards democracy.

1. The first was the Organic Law of 1928. This law created the following five Yuans or branches of government.
   • Executive provided leadership and carried out laws.
   • Legislative initiated, debated and voted for laws.
   • Judicial controlled the courts and constitutional validity of laws.
   • Examination ensured high education standards of bureaucrats .
   • Control administered the police organisations.
2. The second law established a provisional constitution (1931) to initiate the shape of China's future democracy.

However, Jiang Jieshi did not develop the democratic institutions further or promote democracy at local government level. He took the positions of Chairman of the Government Executive, leader of the Guomindang and commander-in-chief of the army as well as twenty-five other posts. No opposition was allowed and elections were never organised.

Threats from warlords and communists as well as the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931 necessitated a military government. This is the reason why democratic reform could not be fully pursued.

Jiang Jieshi was very comfortable in the role of military dictator. He admired the samurai tradition in Japan and Zeng Guofan, a conservative Chinese military leader from the nineteenth century who demonstrated loyalty to the emperor. Jiang had won prestige and loyal supporters from his leadership of the Huangpu Academy and the Northern Expedition .

By the 1930s Jiang held the positions of chief of staff and chairman of the National Military Council. He used advisers from Germany to train the military and modernise China's weaponry. Over 40 per cent of annual expenditure was absorbed by the military.

The government was supported by strong cliques, such as the military or Huangpu clique and the CC clique. The CC clique was the name given to two powerful brothers, Chen Guofu, who was the chief CCP bureaucrat, and Chen Lifu, who oversaw the secret police and propaganda.

However, as the decade progressed it was evident that Jiang was not a successful military leader as he could not totally defeat the warlords, the communists or the Japanese.

Jiang Jieshi considered China as lacking in spirit and a place where chaos ruled. Admiring the discipline and mass participation evident in Italian fascism , he launched the New Life Movement in February 1934.

Jiang aimed to shape a new Chinese citizen: nationalistic and self-disciplined with improved 'etiquette, justice, integrity and conscientiousness' (Spence 1990, p 414). He believed Confucian values such as humanity – jen, proper conduct – li, honesty – lian, self-respect – chi and justice – yi must be revitalised. Physical activity and military training were also vital for discipline and self-sacrifice according to Jiang Jieshi.

Public health campaigns, lectures, posters, plays, films and rallies were the vehicles used to promote the ninety-five rules of the New Life Movement. The Blue Shirts, modelled on Mussolini's Blackshirts reinforced the New Life Movement and exalted Jiang Jieshi as a national hero.

Women were encouraged to have 'four virtues': chastity, appearance, speech and work. Women were expected to meet specific standards of dress and behaviour.

Secondary education in the populated coastal cities was expanded during the 1930s and the number of students enrolled in schools increased by 400 per cent. Education was controlled and became an instrument to achieve Jiang Jieshi's goals.

The strict Press Law of 1930 demanded press regulation and films were to focus on goals of the state rather than entertainment. Writers who deviated from government guidelines were harassed and some were killed.